In the Mahāyāna Buddhist cultures of China, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan, women’s roles have been shaped not only by Buddhism but also by Confucian values. These values emphasized filial piety, female modesty, and domestic obedience, often placing women in subordinate roles within society and the family. Nevertheless, Buddhism offered spiritual opportunities and symbolic models that allowed women to assert religious identities and forms of authority — often in contrast to prevailing social norms.
Confucianism, as the dominant social ideology in much of East Asia, promoted a vision of the ideal woman as obedient to her father, husband, and later her son. Her primary status came from being a mother — especially the mother of sons who could perform ancestral rites. Yet within this framework, Buddhism’s egalitarian ideals — particularly the emphasis on universal Buddha-nature — allowed women a spiritual dignity that their social environment did not always recognize.
In China, the bhikṣuṇī (fully ordained nun’s) lineage was established early and has continued to the present. Chinese nuns gained significant influence over the centuries, especially during the medieval period, when collections like the Pi-ch’iu-ni chuan documented the biographies of exemplary nuns. These women were admired for their discipline, asceticism, and sometimes political insight. Despite Confucian segregation of the sexes, Buddhist nunneries provided spaces where women could study, teach, and attain spiritual realization.
In Korea, the bhikṣuṇī tradition also remained strong, with women’s monasteries often serving as active centers of learning and practice. Korean nuns have taken leading roles in modern Buddhist reform, and continue to teach and write extensively.
In Japan, the trajectory of women’s roles was more complex. In the Heian period (794–1185 CE), women had access to education and were prominent in literature and courtly culture. Buddhism, especially in its Pure Land and esoteric forms, deeply influenced this era. However, later periods saw the rise of patriarchal family structures and warrior ethics, influenced by Confucianism and bushidō. These developments led to restrictions on nuns’ ordination and public roles. Even so, Japanese women maintained a religious presence — often through household rituals, lay devotions, and supporting temple life.
One powerful figure in Eastern Buddhism is Guānyīn, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, who transformed from the male Avalokiteśvara into a widely venerated female form in East Asia. This shift symbolized compassion in a maternal, nurturing image and made Guānyīn a central devotional figure for women, especially those seeking protection, fertility, and relief from suffering. In this way, Guānyīn served as both a spiritual model and an emotional refuge for countless women across generations.
Remarkably, in 19th-century rural Canton, women created Guānyīn-inspired communities, where they vowed celibacy, refused marriage, and lived together in what resembled informal nunneries. These women, often economically independent, used Buddhism as a path of resistance against the hardships and subordination imposed by marriage and family life. This shows how Mahāyāna Buddhism, while often operating within patriarchal societies, could empower women with alternative roles and aspirations.
In Taiwan today, nuns make up a majority of the ordained Buddhist population, reflecting both continuity with tradition and modern religious vitality. Taiwanese nuns often lead temples, teach Dharma, and are highly educated, enjoying substantial autonomy.
In sum, the lands of Eastern Buddhism reflect a dynamic interplay between Confucian social roles and Mahāyāna spiritual ideals. While many cultural norms restricted women, Buddhist thought and practice provided space for respected religious life, spiritual achievement, and symbolic empowerment — a legacy that continues to evolve in the present day.