The role of women in Buddhist religious life has varied significantly across regions and historical periods. Despite institutional barriers, women have often carved out vibrant and meaningful spiritual paths — as nuns, lay practitioners, teachers, and even saints.
In ancient India, nuns initially flourished. Emperor Aśoka (3rd century BCE) praised and supported nuns, and his own daughter, Saṅghamittā, became one of the first to establish the bhikkhunī order in Sri Lanka. Nuns were active and respected through the early centuries, but their presence dwindled after 300 CE. Inscriptions, donations, and records from Chinese pilgrims suggest that nuns gradually lost support and visibility, in part due to resurging Hindu values that idealized women as wives and mothers. However, texts like the Tamil epic Maṇimēkalai resisted this trend by celebrating a woman who chose renunciation over romance .
In Eastern Buddhism, particularly China, Taiwan, and Korea, the bhikkhunī ordination line survived and even thrived. Chinese nuns lived separately due to Confucian norms but were often active in teaching, scholarship, and religious politics. The Pi-ch’iu-ni chuan contains the biographies of 65 accomplished nuns from 317–516 CE, highlighting their asceticism, wisdom, and leadership. Some wrote treatises, though none are known to survive. Nuns were often drawn to monastic life as a way to escape the limitations of a patriarchal society .
In Southern Buddhism, the bhikkhunī order died out in Sri Lanka in 1017 CE following invasions. Though it could have been reintroduced from Burma (where it lasted into the 13th century), only the male lineage was revived. Today, many Southern Buddhist countries like Thailand and Cambodia lack full ordination for women. Still, many women follow eight or ten precepts as lay renunciants (mae chi or dasa sil mata), often with limited recognition or support .
In Northern Buddhism, Tibet never properly established a bhikkhunī lineage due to logistical challenges. Female practitioners, called a-nis, follow 36 precepts — fewer than bhikkhunīs — and are officially regarded as novices. Yet Tibetan Buddhism reveres female saints and mystics, like Machig Labdrön and Yeshe Tsogyel, some of whom are recognized reincarnations of enlightened beings. The most famous lineage is that of Dorje Phagmo, one of the highest female incarnations in Tibetan history .
In modern Japan, historical circumstances weakened the role of nuns. They were limited to novice ordination and lived in hermitages, often with little support. Though many remained celibate and well-trained, monks were allowed to marry and take on priestly roles — sometimes assisted by their wives, to the frustration of celibate nuns. Today, around 2,000 nuns live independently, often running small temples. Some are university-educated, but recruitment remains low due to family resistance .
Globally, women have shaped Buddhism through lay religious roles as well. In Tibet and Ladakh, laywomen have been active in local economies and political resistance. In the West, especially North America, women have become prominent teachers, scholars, and organizers — helping reshape global Buddhist institutions with feminist perspectives. This has influenced even traditional Asian lineages to reconsider women’s ordination and status .
Overall, Buddhism has provided paths of empowerment and liberation for women, even amid patriarchal constraints. The story of Buddhist nuns and female religious figures is one of perseverance, innovation, and deep spiritual contribution — often against the grain of prevailing social norms.