To understand the position of women in early Buddhism, it is essential to look at the broader social and religious context of ancient India, particularly the traditions that preceded and developed alongside Buddhism.
In the earliest Vedic period (c. 1500–1000 BCE), women were relatively respected and independent. Some were likely among the poet-seers who composed sacred hymns, and there are suggestions that women trained to sing ritual texts. They were honored as mothers and enjoyed a degree of freedom of movement, granted by their male relatives .
However, as Vedic religion evolved, it became increasingly ritualized and male-dominated. The Brāhmaṇas (c. 1000–700 BCE) introduced elaborate rituals requiring priestly specialists — a role only open to brahmin males. Daughters were typically not educated unless their father possessed the knowledge and chose to teach them. Sons became crucial for carrying out the funeral rites that would secure their father’s rebirth into a heavenly realm. In contrast, daughters were seen as a burden until marriage, which was considered their social and religious duty .
This patriarchal development deepened with the Upaniṣads (c. 700–200 BCE), the mystical and philosophical texts of Hinduism. Although they mention a few notable women, such as Gārgī, who participated in philosophical debates, asceticism was largely male-dominated. Women were often seen as temptresses and distractions from the path of renunciation .
From the 5th century BCE onward, as Buddhism and Jainism emerged and gained popularity, Brahmanism responded by developing social codes like the Dharma-śāstras. These legal texts codified restrictive norms for women. The most influential of these, the Manu Smṛti (c. 100 CE), explicitly forbade women from reading Vedic texts or performing rituals without a male intermediary. Women were now clearly subordinate — expected to serve fathers, husbands, and sons throughout their lives .
In this context, Buddhism marked a significant departure. While not rejecting all social norms of the time, it created a space where women could renounce worldly life and pursue the path to awakening. The founding of the bhikkhunī order (order of nuns), led by Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī, was revolutionary — an unprecedented step in Indian religious history. It affirmed that women could attain the same spiritual goals as men, including full enlightenment.
Nevertheless, the influence of the surrounding Brahmanical culture meant that Buddhist attitudes toward women were often a blend of progressive soteriological inclusiveness and inherited patriarchy. While the Buddha himself emphasized spiritual equality, later texts and traditions sometimes echoed the declining status of women found in broader Indian society.
In sum, ancient India saw a gradual constriction of women’s roles, from early ritual participation and social mobility to increasingly rigid domestic and religious constraints. Against this backdrop, the emergence of Buddhism offered women new opportunities for spiritual agency — though not without continued tension and negotiation with prevailing norms.