In the Theravāda Buddhist cultures of Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, women have historically held a paradoxical position — enjoying notable social freedoms and religious merit-making roles while also being excluded from full institutional equality in the monastic hierarchy.
The most striking historical example of women’s religious presence comes from Sri Lanka, where the bhikkhunī (nun’s) order was established by Saṅghamittā, the daughter of Emperor Aśoka, in the 3rd century BCE. For centuries, women received full ordination, followed the complete Vinaya (discipline) for nuns, and played an active role in religious life. However, the bhikkhunī lineage died out after the 11th century, following invasions and social upheavals. While the bhikkhu (monks’) order was later revived, the bhikkhunī lineage was not — a loss that persists in many Southern Buddhist countries today.
In Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and parts of Myanmar, a full bhikkhunī lineage either never took root or disappeared. In its place, women often adopt life as lay renunciants — such as mae chi in Thailand or dasa sil mata in Sri Lanka — following 8 or 10 precepts, wearing white robes, and living celibate lives. Though respected locally, these women often receive limited institutional support, are not officially part of the Saṅgha, and may face restrictions in education, housing, and recognition.
Despite this, women in Southern Buddhist societies have enjoyed greater social and legal rights than their counterparts in many other ancient and pre-modern societies. In pre-colonial Burma, women could inherit property, own businesses, and initiate divorce. Buddhist marriage teachings did not demand female obedience but mutual respect. Women also played active roles in family economies and temple patronage.
In Sri Lanka, women have long taken an active part in religious observance. Many are committed lay meditators, with some becoming respected teachers. In fact, in modern Sri Lanka and Thailand, women often outnumber men in meditation retreats. Laywomen contribute immensely to the monastic community through dāna (generosity), especially by offering food, robes, and medicine to monks.
Modern social reform movements have built on these traditions. The Sarvodaya Shramadāna movement in Sri Lanka, for instance, encourages women’s participation in grassroots leadership and community development. Women in this movement have often broken with traditional passivity and spoken out in public forums, asserting their voices in both secular and spiritual matters.
Yet, despite their important roles, women in Southern Buddhism still face institutional inequalities. The absence of full ordination in most countries remains a central issue of debate. Recent decades have seen efforts to revive bhikkhunī ordination in Sri Lanka and more recently in Thailand, often with support from Mahāyāna communities that have preserved the bhikkhunī lineage.
In conclusion, women in the lands of Southern Buddhism have demonstrated resilience, leadership, and deep spiritual engagement across centuries. Though often limited by institutional structures, they have remained indispensable to the living tradition of Theravāda Buddhism, both as preservers and transformers of the Dhamma.