In the ancient Indian culture from which both Hinduism and Buddhism emerged, the position of women underwent significant change over time. In the earliest phase, represented by the Veda Saṁhitās (c. 1500–1000 BCE), women held a relatively honored and independent position. There were goddesses among the deities, and some women likely participated in composing sacred hymns. Women were honored as mothers and allowed considerable freedom of movement, with a role in public ritual life not entirely denied to them .
As Vedic religion evolved into the Brāhmaṇa period (c. 1000–700 BCE), religious life became increasingly centered around complex rituals that required priestly specialists. This shift began to exclude women, as only males from the brahmin class were educated for these roles. Daughters could receive religious instruction only if their father was already knowledgeable. At this stage, a son was necessary to perform key rituals for a deceased father, believed to help him reach heaven — creating a strong preference for male offspring .
With time, rituals emerged to prevent the birth of daughters, who were seen as financial and social burdens until they married — which was regarded as their duty. Wives came to be viewed primarily as child-bearers and subservient to their husbands and in-laws. As patriarchal norms deepened under brahminical dominance, women’s status declined sharply .
Even in the mystical and philosophical Upaniṣads (c. 700–200 BCE), where a few women like Gārgī are acknowledged as respected debaters, asceticism was largely a male domain. Ascetics frequently viewed women as distractions or temptresses, further marginalizing them from religious advancement .
From the 5th century BCE onward, as Buddhism and Jainism rose in influence, Brahmanism responded by reasserting dominance. This included incorporating popular deity cults and creating legal codes — the Dharma-śāstras — to regulate society according to their norms. One of the most influential of these, the Manu Smṛti (c. 100 CE), formalized a deeply patriarchal worldview: women were barred from reading the sacred texts, performing sacrifices, or engaging in independent religious practice without male oversight .
Thus, the transition from the early Vedic period to classical Hinduism witnessed a systematic erosion of women’s autonomy and status. While early Hindu society allowed women greater participation in spiritual and cultural life, later structures reduced their roles to that of dependents within a rigidly hierarchical family system — setting the stage for the more egalitarian spiritual paths that Buddhism sought to offer.