In Chinese history, Buddhism maintained an uneasy tension with political authority, social unrest, and military power. Although rooted in ideals of non-violence, Buddhism in China — as elsewhere — has at times been caught up in moments of conflict and justification of force.
The Chinese Sangha upheld strict precepts on non-violence. A monk who intentionally killed a human being was permanently expelled from the monastic community. In fact, Chinese monastic codes placed this rule as the first of the parajikas (defeats) — emphasizing its moral gravity even more than in Indian Buddhism .
Despite this, over the centuries, Buddhist symbols, rituals, and figures were sometimes drawn into warfare. For example, Vaiśravaṇa, one of the Four Heavenly Kings, became a tantric protector-deity invoked in military contexts. In Tang China, he was the focus of rites to secure victory in battle and defend the Dharma. Banners, mantras, and mudras were also used by Chinese armies as instruments of magical protection or intimidation .
Interestingly, it was often non-Chinese peoples in northern China who adopted Buddhism initially for its apparent magical and martial potency — seeking divine favor in warfare. However, after adopting the religion, many were influenced by Buddhist monks to pursue more peaceful ways .
In some periods of weakened central authority, Buddhist monks became more directly involved in social upheaval. Particularly in times of instability, when religion was feudalized along with society, monks — often of peasant origin — sometimes formed or led armed bands of rebels, allying themselves with discontented nobles or local officials seeking autonomy .
A notable case occurred in 581 CE, when Wen-ti, the founder of the Sui dynasty, declared himself a Cakkavatti (righteous wheel-turning monarch). He claimed that his battles had promoted Buddhism and symbolically reframed weapons as offerings. This blurring of martial conquest and religious patronage was part of his attempt to legitimize his reign and align himself with the Dhamma .
Still, Buddhism never became as openly entangled with state violence in China as it did in Japan. Mutinies and monk-led revolts existed but did not define the tradition’s relationship to power. Instead, Chinese Buddhism often played a humanizing and pacifying role — promoting ethical governance, restraining rulers’ impulses, and offering spiritual refuge during times of turmoil.
Buddhist involvement in violence in China, then, has been sporadic and contextual — less a doctrinal endorsement than a reflection of broader historical forces. The deeper thread remains: that Buddhism, when true to its roots, seeks to transform even the roughest conditions with the quiet force of compassion and insight.